This is where historical records diverge. Our primary sources for this period include Livy, Polybius, and later Roman historians who sometimes wrote with a bias against Carthage. Here's what they tell us: Polybius, a Greek historian writing relatively close to the time of the events (2nd century BCE), confirms the initial number of elephant

One of the most dramatic episodes in ancient military history is the Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca’s legendary crossing of the Alps during the Second Punic War (218–201 BCE). His bold strategy was to take the fight to Rome by marching from Iberia (modern-day Spain) into Italy—not by sea, as the Romans expected, but by land. What made th

One of the most famous tales about Caligula is that he planned to make his favorite horse, Incitatus, a consul, one of the highest political offices in Rome. While this might sound like pure myth or dark comedy, ancient sources like Suetonius mention this story as a real intention of the emperor. Modern historians debate whether Caligula truly int

Few figures in ancient history evoke as much fascination, horror, and intrigue as Caligula, the third Roman Emperor. Known for his cruelty, extravagance, and erratic behavior, Caligula has become a symbol of tyrannical madness. But how much of what we know about him is based on historical truth, and how much is myth or exaggeration by ancient sourc